As pets have grown in popularity—with more than half the global population keeping one in their homes—they’ve inspired a perception that furry (or scaly) companions improve our health. Given that social connections with other people are paramount to our well-being, it’s not such a leap to assume that social connections with other species are valuable as well, especially with cats and dogs. However, a review study published today in PLOS One finds little evidence for any overall health “pet effect.”

Conducted by behavioral science researchers at universities in Switzerland and the Netherlands, the study explored physical health, social support, life satisfaction, loneliness, and psychological well-being associated with pet ownership. Data from a random sample of 2,328 adult participants were extracted from Switzerland’s annual MOSAiCH survey on health. In addition, participants completed questions about pet ownership, time spent with animals, attachment levels, and attributions of emotional support.

Read more: “Why Do Some People Look Like Their Dogs?”

The researchers then compared the 1,105 participants who reported close contact with pets—ranging from cats and dogs to small terrarium animals like fish and insects—to the 1,223 participants who lacked regular contact with pets. After controlling for demographic factors like age, gender, income, and marital status, the results showed no overall differences in perceived life satisfaction or loneliness.

Some nuances did become apparent, though. Pet owners reported poorer physical health than non-pet owners, a trend the study authors attribute partly to the higher frequency of cigarette smoking by pet owners. And paradoxically, people who felt more emotionally supported by their pet, which was disproportionately women and unmarried individuals, reported slightly more feelings of loneliness. That said, pet owners who spent more time with their animals reported higher psychological well-being than those who spent less.

Keeping in mind that the results were correlation rather than causation, the study authors concluded that pet ownership doesn’t automatically improve people’s physical or mental health. “Instead, we found that the relationship people have with their animals is much more nuanced than a simple yes-or-no question of pet ownership,” they explained in a press release. “Pet ownership is a multidimensional construct that includes characteristics of the owner, the animal, and their relationship.”

So don’t be fooled into believing that happiness is just a new cute puppy away.

Lead image: Даша Швецова / Adobe Stock